before

Before the Permian Extinction planetary surface area was equal to the surface area of the continental landmasses, mass and surface area similar to Mars, the lithosphere draped the mantle in an unbroken rocky shell, Earth was in geosynchronous orbit with Mars, both with 24 hour orbital and rotational period, halfway between their present solar orbits.

A map of the titanium abundances on the Moon’s near side surface indicates extremely high concentrations compared to terrestrial rocks. We mimicked the high-Titanium basalts using high-temperature experiments clearly demonstrating how the melt-solid reaction is integral in understanding the formation of these unique magmas.

Titanium deposits, only on the near side, suggest the lunar surface was heated by atmospheric friction before impacting Earth, shattering the lithosphere at the future location of the Pacific Ocean, causing the Permian extinction, knocking Earth out of orbit with Mars into an orbit closer to the sun, before rebounding into lunar orbit.
Since the Permian extinction Earth’s mass has increased tenfold, surface area and surface gravity has increased 2 1/2 times and surface curvature of the planet has flattened from the surface curvature of Mars to the surface curvature of the deep water oceans.

Assuming a global mid-ocean ridge length of 65,000 km and average spreading rate of 25 km/ million years, it is possible to estimate how much new surface area could be created over the 250 million years since the Permian–Triassic extinction event. If the Earth had the surface area of Mars—about 44 million km²—and this additional oceanic area were added through continuous seafloor spreading, the total planetary surface would grow to roughly 550 million km².

Converting surface area back into the radius of a sphere yields a radius of roughly 6,600 km, which is quite close to the modern radius of Earth, about 6,371 km. In purely geometric terms, therefore, the amount of crust that could be generated by spreading at the assumed rates over 250 million years is of the same order as the surface area required for a planet to grow from roughly Mars-sized to approximately the present dimensions of Earth.

SPREAD RATES OF THE OCEANIC PLATES

Arctic Ocean
North America – Eurasia — 10–20 km/Myr

Indian Ocean
Africa – Antarctica — 10–20 km/Myr
Africa – Indo-Australian plate — 50–60 km/Myr
Australia – Antarctica — 60–70 km/Myr
Arabia – Africa — 20–30 km/Myr

Pacific Ocean
Pacific – Nazca — 40–160 km/Myr
Pacific – Cocos — 80–90 km/Myr
Pacific – Antarctic — 70–100 km/Myr
Nazca – Antarctic — 70–80 km/Myr
Pacific – Juan de Fuca — 55–65 km/Myr

The increase in planetary surface area has decreased surface curvature of the continental landmasses from the surface curvature of Mars to the curvature of the deepwater oceans, causing faults, sheer forces and earthquakes as the landscape flattens.

The tenfold increase in mass has increased surface gravity 2.5 times since the beginning of the Mesozoic, allowing animals to grow to prodigious sizes in reduced gravity.

FIVE LARGEST LAND ANIMALS

2. Patagotitan mayorum
Length: about 37–40 m (121–131 ft)
Mass: about 60–75 metric tons
When it lived: about 101–95 million years ago
Where: Argentina

3. Dreadnoughtus schrani
Length: about 26–30 m (85–98 ft)
Mass: about 50–65 metric tons
When it lived: about 77 million years ago

4. Puertasaurus reuili
Length: about 30–35 m (98–115 ft)
Mass: perhaps 50–80 metric tons
When it lived: about 76–70 million years ago

5. Paralititan stromeri
Length: about 26–30 m (85–100 ft)
Mass: roughly 60–75 metric tons
When it lived: about 95–93 million years ago

FIVE LARGEST FLYING ANIMALS

2. Hatzegopteryx thambema
Wingspan: 10–11 m (33–36 ft)
Weight: 220–250 kg (485–550 lb)
Lived: 70–66 million years ago
Location: Europe (Romania)

3. Cryodrakon boreas
Wingspan: up to 10 m (33 ft)
Weight: 180–220 kg (400–485 lb)
Lived: 76–74 million years ago
Location: North America (Canada)

4. Arambourgiania philadelphiae
Wingspan: 8–10 m (26–33 ft)
Weight: 150–200 kg (330–440 lb)
Lived: 72–66 million years ago

5. Thanatosdrakon amaru
Wingspan: about 9 m (30 ft)
Weight: 170–220 kg (375–485 lb)
Lived: about 86 million years ago

In humans and bovids, cortical bone has been evaluated to withstand maximum stress. Hence, within the context of comparable loading regimes, the mechanical state of each sauropod model examined suggests that all skeletal pedal postures would most likely have resulted in mechanical failure (e.g., stress fractures).

This state would have been intensified when subjected to repetitive heavy loadings, as would be expected during normal locomotion, ultimately resulting in fatigue fracture in all digits. Being unable to support or move properly, the high probability of mechanical failure would have had a substantial impact on the animal’s survival.

The huge Quetzalcoatlus northropi lived 70 million years ago, stood as tall as a giraffe on the ground, more than five meters tall and weighed 250 kilograms. The Kori bustard is the heaviest living animal that can fly. Males weigh between 10 and 16 kilograms and the biggest up to 23 kg. For comparison, the wandering albatross has a larger wingspan, but only the biggest reach even 16 kg.